A COLLECTIVE STEREOGRAPHIC
PHOTO ESSAY
ON KEY ASPECTS OF
ANIMAL COMPANIONSHIP:
THE TRUTH ABOUT DOGS AND CATS

By

Morris B. Holbrook, Debra Lynn Stephens,
Ellen Day, Sarah M. Holbrook,
and Gregor Strazar

© 2000 by Morris B. Holbrook,
Debra Lynn Stephens, Ellen Day, Sarah M. Holbrook,
and Gregor Strazar

ABSTRACT

This Web paper explores the consumption experiences involved in living with animal companions by means of an integrated approach to marketing and consumer research called the Collective Stereographic Photo Essay or CSPE. By way of introduction, the e-publication begins by considering the context for the research -- namely, the manner in which people relate to their pets, the potential benefits from such interactions, and how these inter-species relationships shape the everyday worlds of many human consumers. Next, we briefly review the primary method applied to our investigation by outlining four key components of the CSPE approach as described elsewhere. We then turn to the development of a conceptual framework suggested by four phases of data collection and analysis. These four phases of CSPE indicate and corroborate the importance of seven major themes concerning different sorts of opportunities associated with animal companionship: (1) The Opportunity to Appreciate Nature and to Experience Wildlife; (2) The Opportunity for Inspiration and Learning; (3) The Opportunity to be Childlike and Playful; (4) The Opportunity to be Altruistic and Nurturant; (5) The Opportunity for Companionship, Caring, Comfort, and/or Calmness; (6) The Opportunity to Parent; and (7) The Opportunity to Strengthen Bonds with Other Humans. We conclude with some broader reflections concerning implications and insights that we might draw from our study.

Not surprisingly, many of us admit our animal companions into the most intimate areas of our lives. We are not in the least embarrassed when a dog sees us in the shower or overhears an argument. In this, a companion animal provides an intimacy that exceeds any we may experience with virtually any other human being, including our spouses and children; the intimacy is on a par with that of mother and newborn infant, or of our own skins (Thomas 1996, p. ix).

These words from Elizabeth Marshall Thomas (1996) summarize the gist of the present essay on key aspects of animal companionship. Specifically, we focus on the essence of pet-related consumption experiences and on how our animal companions are welcomed into our most intimate or private moments, are loved, are treated as family members in general or as children in particular, and are deeply mourned when their cherished lives have come to an end. That pets offer us humans warm and enduring companionship is well-documented (Beck and Katcher ed. 1983; Hirschman 1994; Katcher and Beck ed. 1983; Loyer-Carlson 1992; Sussman ed. 1985). Owners have characterized their pets as children, friends, or playmates; and most attest to the unconditional regard offered by their companion animals (Holbrook 1996b, 1997a; Kowalski 1991; Stephens and Hill 1996; Weissman 1991). This study delves more deeply into these and other aspects of the human-animal relationship. It explores how consumption experiences with pets or animal companions add meaning to our lives as humans.

For example, as the second author's cats age and suffer the ill effects of arthritis, kidney failure, bowel problems, and hyperthyroidism, her commitment to them becomes increasingly conscious and exacts emotional, financial, social, and temporal costs that she cannot imagine sustaining -- with such great largesse or so little ambivalence -- were the cats human. The sources of her devotion to her feline companions are their vulnerability and their serene, affectionate constancy. They are her refuge and her delight.

The second author is not alone in this partiality to another species. A colleague who spotted the cat photos on her desk volunteered a history of his own beloved felines, commenting that he wept openly in the veterinarian's office when one of his cats had to be euthanized because of a terminal illness. "I didn't cry like that when my mother died," he mused.

Formal surveys abound with evidence of the special place that animal companions occupy in this society. A recent example is the American Animal Hospital Association's 1999 survey of 1,200 animal-companion owners in the U.S. and Canada (AAHA 2000). Almost two-thirds of the respondents report that they celebrate their pets' birthdays; almost half share the bed with their pet; more than half have taken time off from work to care for a sick pet; and more than four out of five refer to themselves as their pet's mom or dad.

Like human children, animal companions are the targets or recipients of their caregivers' projections, expectations, and desires. And, as with human children, these internal mental representations lead to kindness, love, and nurturing (or -- conversely, when the process breaks down -- to emotional and physical abuse). This study focuses primarily on pet owners who are deeply and positively engaged with their animals. By means of personal essays and photographs, it explores these owners' experiences of -- and with -- their animal companions.

It is important for all those concerned with animal-human bonds to understand how people view and live with their pets because (1) these views and experiences help to shape consumers' responses to their animals' needs for love, nurturing, special foods, health care, and related products or services and (2) these views and experiences may also mediate the many health-related benefits that animals provide their human companions. Therefore, before describing the study, we shall briefly review research examining the ways in which animal companions enhance consumers' well-being.

Medical Benefits of Animal Companions

More than two decades of research indicate that animal companions help to reduce the risk of heart disease and to increase survival rates of individuals who suffer from heart ailments (e.g., Anderson, Reid, and Jennings 1992; Beck and Rowan 1994; Friedmann et al. 1980, 1983; Serpell 1991). In a pioneering study, Friedmann et al. (1980) followed 92 men for one year after their discharge from a coronary care unit, accumulating data on lifestyle, mood, and health. By year's end, only 3 of the 53 pet owners versus 11 of the 39 non-owners had died. When the researchers controlled for other factors known to be positively associated with survival -- including marital status, severity of illness, and amount of exercise -- they found that living with an animal companion reduces the likelihood of dying by about three percent, a contribution roughly equal to that of other social factors. The men in the Friedmann study lived with a variety of species -- including dogs, cats, parakeets, chickens, gerbils, rabbits, fish, iguanas, and others. In a follow-up canine-oriented study of 369 patients with myocardial infarction and cardiac arrhythmia, Friedmann and Thomas (1995) found a significant positive correlation between dog ownership and the one-year survival rate.

Further, living with an animal companion may help prevent the onset of heart disease in the first place. At a heart-disease risk clinic in Australia, 5,741 people were queried about their lifestyle and were asked whether they owned a pet (Anderson, Reid, and Jennings 1992). The 784 pet owners had lower average levels of cholesterol, triglyceride fats, and blood pressure; these differences were independent of exercise, smoking, and dietary habits. In a recent study (Allen, Izzo, and Shykoff 1999), 48 New York stockbrokers with hypertension were given an accepted medication, and half were given a pet in addition. After six months, all had normal blood pressure when resting, but only those with animal companions had normal blood pressure under stress as well.

Animal companionship may have long-term, cumulative effects on health in part because the animal's physical presence can reduce physiological responses to stress. While interacting with other people (family included) often leads to a rise in blood pressure, being with and talking to a pet results in lowered blood pressure for children and adults alike (Friedmann et al. 1983; Katcher et al. 1983). Allen (1999) subjected dog owners, cat owners, and non-owners to both a psychological stressor (mental arithmetic) and a physical stressor (dipping the hand in ice water). She measured participants' blood pressure and heart rate -- before and during the stressful event -- when alone, when with their animal companions (or close human friends for those without pets), when with their spouses, and when with both spouses and pets (or friends). Pet owners evidenced lower heart rates and blood pressure in the animals' presence than when they were alone or with their spouses, while the heart rates and blood pressure of those without animals were lowest when they were alone. Apparently, we can infer that pet ownership is a cardiovascular boon to humankind.

Psychological Benefits of Animal Companions

Living with an animal companion is associated not only with reduced risk of cardiovascular disease and with decreased physiological stress responses, but also with improved mental health. For older individuals, having an animal companion predicts greater self-reported psychological well-being, fewer doctor visits, and reduced chances of clinical depression (Garrity et al. 1989; Siegel 1990). For people of all ages and in many states of health, animal companions can help reduce feelings of loneliness or isolation during life transitions such as long-distance moves, the exodus of children from the home, or the loss of a spouse (Allen 1995; Fogle 1984; Sable 1991, 1995).

While a chronic or life-threatening illness may impair the ability to work, to pursue an active social life, or to engage in elevated levels of physical activity, it may not preclude looking after and taking pleasure in a pet. Indeed, animal companions can offer significant comfort, security, and entertainment to people with a variety of illnesses and disabilities (Siegel 1993). In order to assess the relationship between animal companionship and depression in men living with HIV, Siegel et al. (1999) conducted a survey of more than 1,800 gay and bisexual men, 40 percent of whom were HIV-positive. She found that, among the HIV-positive men, those without pets were three times more likely than non-infected men to report depression, while those with animal companions were only 50 percent more likely to be depressed. Men having few confidants but having a close bond with their animal companions experienced the greatest benefits -- in part because the pets reduced their feelings of isolation. Those with HIV must struggle to stay alive and healthy, to obtain expensive medications, to combat the stigma the disease still carries, and to cope with the loss of friends to it. Not surprisingly, many find that the warmth, affection, and constancy of a pet far outweigh the health risks associated with keeping an animal.

Animal-Assisted Therapy

Animal-assisted therapy (AAT), involving the use of animals in treatment of humans with a variety of illnesses, has a long and venerable history (Beck and Katcher 1996). Many child- and adult-oriented psychotherapists have used animals as co-therapists in treating outpatients as well as institutionalized ones or have recommended that patients acquire a pet as an adjunct to therapy (Corson et al. 1977; Levinson 1970; Loney 1971; McCulloch 1981; Voelker 1995). Individuals struggling with depression associated with chronic illness or disability, low self-esteem, loneliness, and feelings of helplessness report that their animal makes them feel needed or secure, distracts them from their worries, and makes them laugh (McCulloch 1981). (In this connection, recall the concluding portions of the recent film entitled Girl Interrupted, in which Wynona Ryder and her friends in a psychiatric hospital gain some measure of comfort from their relationships with a cat named Ruby.)

Children with autism may show an affection for and sociability with animals that they seldom display toward other humans. If animals are brought into psychotherapy sessions with these children, they may gradually learn to generalize that sociability to the therapist, to decrease their autistic symptoms (e.g., rocking or hand motions), and to use language or touch in their interactions with the therapist (Campbell and Katcher 1992). AAT also has demonstrated effects on very aggressive emotionally disturbed children and on adolescents with severe learning difficulties -- including a reduction of aggressive or agitated behaviors, enhanced cooperation with the instructor, and an increase in enthusiasm for learning (Katcher and Wilkins 1994).

Perhaps one reason animals make such effective co-therapists is that -- unlike their human counterparts -- they are mostly silent, dependably empathetic, and singularly uncritical listeners. In this, they facilitate the human therapist's work by rendering her safer and more accessible to her patients (Loney 1971).

What About the Rest of Us?

The reader might wonder what all this implies for people who do not suffer from physical or mental problems. In other words, those readers fortunate enough to be in good health and free from autism or clinical depression might find themselves asking, "What About the Rest of Us?" Sure, pets might help to protect or to cure people in need of attention from medical doctors and psychotherapists, but what can they do for the typical man or woman on the street?

In tune with the widespread contemporary malaise that appears to characterize the postmodern ethos (e.g., Franklin 1999), the authors tend to regard the world as a fairly dangerous, threatening, or hostile place in which illness, sadness, or some other calamity is always just around the corner, getting ready to knock on one's door. In this sense, we all belong to the great sea of humanity that finds itself both afflicted by the trials and tribulations but also blessed by the opportunities and potentialities of the human condition. One such potential opportunity is that -- even for ordinary people -- however well-adjusted and happy our lives may already be, pets can make them even better-adjusted and happier. Pets perform this minor miracle through the simple act of interacting with us and participating in our everyday world.

In the view of Franklin (1999), humans began to build social and emotional ties with animals because it had become increasingly difficult for them to establish and maintain such ties among themselves: "No doubt a compelling argument could be made to show that the warm, companionate, caring relationships expressed towards animals by humans in postmodernity relate to a longing for such relations to be reestablished between humans" (p. 60). Thus, "Pets are able to provide their keepers with many social benefits which are no longer guaranteed by society" (p. 97). In short, this author sees pet-related consumption as a response to "ontological insecurity" in postmodern times:

What makes animals special, socially unique in late modernity is their potential to be like us and for the categorical boundary between humans and animals to be blurred. Of particular importance is their potential to be available, reliable, stable and predictable in their relations with humans at a time when human social relations are the opposite. In addition, animals are embodied, like us. The physicality and embodiment of important human social relationships is often what is missing, even where a relation is intact -- the absentee parent, the grown child moved from away (pp. 194-195).

In other words, animal companions play roles that deeply influence the nature of our daily consumption experiences.

Consumption Experiences

In adopting a focus on consumption experiences, we pursue an orientation that has recently gained wide acceptance in consumer research dealing with the fantasies, feelings, and fun that characterize the lives of human consumers (Holbrook and Hirschman 1982; for reviews, see Holbrook 1995; Richins 1997). This experiential perspective has tended to emphasize the emotional aspects of consumption (Holbrook 1987; Richins 1997) -- especially in the context of products or experiences evoking high levels of enduring or deep involvement (Bloch and Richins 1983; Laurent and Kapferer 1985; Richins and Bloch 1986) and/or existing in the realm of sacred consumption (Belk, Wallendorf, and Sherry 1989).

The importance of the consumption experience as an orientation for understanding consumer behavior has recently penetrated into the literature aimed at providing prescriptions for marketing strategy. In such books as Experiential Marketing (Schmitt 1999) and The Experience Economy (Pine and Gilmore 1999), various authors have offered guidance on how marketers can exploit the fantasies-feelings-and-fun, thoughts-emotions-and-activities, or thinking-feeling-and-acting that form the basis for experiential consumption. For example, Schmitt (1999) gives detailed illustrations of commercial possibilities in all walks of life, while Pine and Gilmore (1999) recommend charging a suitable price of admission for any and all experiential events.

Clearly, in the manner originally intended by the experiential view (Holbrook and Hirschman 1982) -- before those concerned primarily with the possibilities for commercial exploitation got hold of it -- we are interested not in the purchase of pet-related products (dog food, kitty litter, bird cages) and not in the acquisition of the animals themselves (whether bought from fancy pedigreed breeders or brought home from animal shelters to save them from euthanasia), but rather in people's experiences of sharing their world with animal companions (an ordinary aspect of everyday consumption that many of us take for granted but that pervades our lives as human consumers). Consumer researchers and other investigators have recently begun to explore the experiential aspects of animal companionship (Sanders and Hirschman 1996). For example, analyzing interview data, Belk (1996) finds pets treated metaphorically as sources of pleasures or problems, extensions of the self, family members, or child substitutes. Gillespie, Leffler, and Lerner (1996) use (auto)ethnographic approaches to study dog-sport enthusiasts as examples of absorbing commitment or passionate avocation in identity-shaping leisure pursuits. Along similar lines, the present authors have examined the subjective personal introspective aspects of consumption experiences with animal companions (Holbrook 1996b, 1997a) and have documented the joy- or grief-inducing power of situations involving the love or loss of a pet (Stephens and Hill 1996). These earlier publications contain extensive references to the voluminous literature on experiences that arise in the company of animal companions (e.g., Serpell 1986). Our purpose here is to probe more deeply into the everyday context that surrounds the presence of animal companions in the mundane lives of ordinary human consumers.

Preview

In sum, our animal companions bring us far more than temporary pleasure or amusement. They may make significant contributions to our mental and/or physical well-being, helping to promote our happiness and/or to prolong our lives. Even in the absence of such welfare- or health-related benefits, pet-based consumption experiences add richness, depth, and meaning to the human condition. To better understand the ways in which pets work their magic on us, the present study uses essays and photographs to undertake an in-depth exploration of how consumers experience interactions with the animal companions in their everyday world.

Toward the end of developing insights into the human-pet relationship, we employed an integrated approach referred to as the Collective Stereographic Photo Essay (CSPE); justified at length elsewhere (Holbrook and Kuwahara 1997; 1998); and described here in only enough detail to facilitate its understanding in the present context. Briefly, this method combines four key aspects that characterize the concerns and techniques pursued in the present study:

(1) The illustration of consumption experiences by means of self-photographs taken by the informants themselves;

(2) The use of three-dimensional stereography to enhance the vividness, clarity, realism, and depth of these self-photographs;

(3) The elicitation of verbal vignettes and the synthesis of these into a photo essay;

(4) The combination of these elements by means of collective collaboration.

We shall briefly review each of these aspects as it applies to the findings reported here.

(1) Self-Photographs

Numerous researchers have advocated the use of photographs to illustrate the insights gained via cultural anthropology (Bateson and Mead 1942; Collier 1967; Collier and Collier 1986), visual sociology (Becker 1986, 1995; Chaplin 1994; Harper 1988), or other branches of the social sciences (Wagner ed. 1979; Ziller 1990). Comparable photographic methods have been widely adopted by marketing and consumer researchers (Belk, Sherry, and Wallendorf 1988; Heisley and Levy 1991; Rook 1991; Wallendorf and Belk 1987). Moreover, some have insisted on the importance of collecting such visual images from the informants themselves rather than from some set supplied by the researchers (Ziller 1990). Particularly insistent on this point, Zaltman (1996, 1997) and his colleagues (Zaltman and Coulter 1995; Zaltman and Higie 1993) have supplied informants with disposable cameras for purposes of letting them take their own photos of salient scenes that illustrate key concepts of interest. The present application borrows this idea by equipping informants with twin single-use cameras, fastened together end-to-end to allow them to capture three-dimensional stereographic images of their pets.

(2) Three-Dimensional Stereography

Elsewhere, the first author has written at some length on the virtues of three-dimensional stereography as a way of enhancing the vividness, clarity, realism, and depth of visual images used in the collection of information, analysis of data, interpretation of meanings, and presentation of findings in marketing and consumer research (Holbrook 1996a, 1997b, 1997c, 1998; Holbrook and Kuwahara 1997, 1998). Here, we shall mention only that stereo 3-D photo techniques require the simultaneous exposure of two film images taken from slightly different left- and right-eyed perspectives; the careful cropping and mounting of these images to adjust them for vertical alignment and to render them compatible horizontally; the display of such stereo 3-D pictures via two members of a stereo pair or via red-and-blue/green anaglyphs; and observation of the relevant depth effects by means of either free-viewing or aided viewing in the case of stereo pairs or by means of red-and-blue/green glasses in the case of anaglyphs. Full accounts of the relevant techniques for viewing such stereo 3-D images appear in the aforementioned references. Particularly helpful in this respect -- with details on free-viewing as well as on obtaining the devices needed for the aided viewing of stereo pairs and anaglyphs -- is an electronic publication by Holbrook (1997c) found at the Web Site for the Academy of Marketing Science Review:

A somewhat more user-friendly, easy-to-navigate version of essentially the same material appears at:

In Phases 2, 3, and 4 of the present study, we also present single-image photos to complement the stereographs just described. In addition, readers of this e-publication should keep in mind that they can view enlarged versions of the stereo pairs monocularly by right-clicking on the picture and selecting the "view image" option.

(3) Photo Essay

Verbal vignettes collected by means of a written questionnaire are read, analyzed, and categorized for thematic content. Via this process, we move toward reaching agreement on the pervasiveness of various major themes (described in what follows). As evidence, each theme is bolstered by relevant quotations from the verbal vignettes provided by our informants. In addition, visual illustrations appear in the form of stereo 3-D photos (where possible) and/or by means of single-view pictures (especially where, for reasons described later, the stereographic images did not turn out).

(4) Collective Collaboration

In a study such as this, we regard our informants not as "respondents" in a survey "directed" by the principal researchers -- much less as "subjects" of an "experiment" in which they are "manipulated" by various experimental treatments -- but rather as collaborators in a collective project. Here, the collective collaboration aims toward the understanding of a mutually shared phenomenon -- in this case, the experience of communing as single individuals and as families with the company of animal companions. When answering our questions, our informants understand that we approach them not as targets for investigation but as members of a species-crossing community that includes the researchers, the individuals who share their thoughts and feelings, and the pets on whom these ideas and emotions are centered.

Phase 1 refers back to a study on the theme of "What Happiness Means to Me" reported at length in another context by Holbrook and Kuwahara (1999). This previous research has focused on an aspect of the consumption experience shared by all consumers as part of the human condition -- namely, the nature and types of happiness that matter to consumers in their daily lives. As with the present work on pet-related consumption, our study of happiness has employed the CSPE approach just described. It invites consumers to tell and show us -- in their own words and via the use of pictures -- what happiness means to them.

Phase 1 Sample

Stage 2 -- Corroboration Sample. Students in two more MBA classes each provided an essay and stereo photo for purposes of corroborating the themes uncovered in Stage 1.

General Findings from the Happiness Project

Analysis of the data from Stage 2, collected in the spring of 1999, tended to corroborate the importance of the themes just identified. Cases from Stage 2 appeared to fall naturally into the categories listed, with no need to delete categories or to include additional types.

Findings from the Happiness Project of Specific Interest to Phase 1 of the Present Study on Pet-Related Consumption Experiences

A 31-year-old administrative assistant credits her consumption experiences with two dogs, Rufus and Chelsea -- which she chronicles in considerable detail -- as a major source of happiness based on "mutual love and affection":

In one of the wittiest and most literate vignettes from any of our informants, a 30-year-old student calculates the annual cost of her Rotweiler and Bichon as "north of $15,000 a year in after-tax dollars" -- but considers this expenditure worth it because she loves them twice as much as "the last man I wouldn't marry":

More simply, another student (age 28) sees her dog Molly as a source of "unconditional love" -- "I love my dog because she always loves me" (AR~28F).

Turning to cats, a 33-year-old self-described "entrepreneur" feels that his cat brings him happiness because "he is always happy to see me" (IP30M). Similarly, a 40-year-old Cuban-American computer consultant took a stereograph of her cat April to signify "the love that creates happiness" (SV40F). A 30-year-old teacher appreciates the feeling of "comfort" in a home shared with her cats Shakespeare and Cal (AF30F). In a comparable spirit, a 33-year-old museum curator feels that cats "epitomize domestic happiness" by completing his sense of "feeling grounded at home and in my family" (GE33M).

Feeling maternal toward her cat Jack, one 27-year-old student insists that this pet "loves me unconditionally -- I'm his 'mommy'":

Among the most extraordinary photos taken by any of our informants, those of Boutros the Cat capture his ability to prompt feelings of "simply joyful love" in his 34-year-old owner. For her, "Looking at him makes me smile. Watching him play or be a spaz makes me laugh. Hearing him purr makes me purr":

Finally, one of our informants -- a 30-year-old student -- finds that the "essence" of happiness "can be explained ... through my experiences with horses":

Conclusions From Phase 1

Phase 1 draws on the Happiness Project to establish the importance of pet-related consumption experiences in the lives of ordinary consumers. Over ten percent of our informants identified animal companionship as the essence of "What Happiness Means To Me." This strongly suggests the usefulness of investigating the consumption experiences associated with pet ownership in greater depth. Accordingly, this topic became the major focus for Phases 2, 3, and 4 of the present study.

A well-established pet sitter with a large clientele in a small midwestern city was contacted about the study and kindly agreed to send out a flier describing it in a mailing to 250 of her clients. Forty-two individuals telephoned one of the authors to inquire about the research and were sent the questionnaire shown in Appendix 1. Of those, 23 individuals in 20 households responded to the questionnaire. An additional ten individuals in nine households were recruited by the authors and their friends. In these 29 households live a total of 27 cats, 29 dogs, a parakeet, and a hermit crab. Our method was designed to explore the responses of these informants to their animal companions in depth.

Verbal vignettes collected by means of the questionnaire shown in Appendix 1 were read, analyzed, and categorized for thematic content by four of the authors. One set of analyses, conducted by the fifth author and presented in their entirety, appears in Appendix 2.

Via this process -- conducted both independently and in iterative consultation -- we pursued a "hermeneutic circle" in the direction of reaching agreement on the pervasiveness of seven major themes, described in what follows. As evidence, each theme is bolstered by relevant quotations from the verbal vignettes provided by our informants.

In addition, visual illustrations appear in the form of stereo 3-D photos where possible or, otherwise, by means of single-view pictures where the stereographic images did not turn out (usually because the informant forgot to release both shutters at the same time, stood too close or too far from the relevant subject, or neglected to turn on the flashes before taking the picture).

Findings from Phase 2: Seven Major Themes in Consumption Experiences with Companion Animals

As noted earlier, four of the five coauthors analyzed the interviews independently, describing themes and extracting exemplars. We reached agreement about all of the key motifs discussed in what follows. Specifically, we found that pets provide many opportunities for their owners. Careful analysis of our informants' responses suggested the following seven major themes regarding the various opportunities associated with animal companionship:

(1) The Opportunity to Appreciate Nature and to Experience Wildlife

(2) The Opportunity for Inspiration and Learning

(3) The Opportunity to be Childlike and Playful

(4) The Opportunity to be Altruistic and Nurturant

(5) The Opportunity for Companionship, Caring, Comfort, and/or Calmness

(6) The Opportunity to Parent

(7) The Opportunity to Strengthen Bonds with Other Humans

Another stereo photo of Shadow in the snow deserves inclusion by virtue of its excellent three-dimensional depth. If one looks carefully, one can see a few snow flakes suspended between the camera and the dog.

D--- finds that his ten-year-old Yorkshire Terrier Jigger heightens his awareness of and sensitivity toward a whole list of various other types of animals:

I am sure that since my close association with Jigger, I have become infinitely more aware of and sensitive to all other animals, dogs especially but cats, birds, squirrels, and whatever wildlife television presents. As a child I had first a cat, then a dog, but I wasn't as close to them as I've had to be to Jigger, nor mature enough to think beyond the immediate moment.

Cats can evoke similar experiences, as in the case of A----, who identifies profoundly with her pets and who regards her two cats -- five-year-old Max and four-year-old Sam -- as instructive models for preparing to care for her new (human) baby L----:

Sam was abused as a baby, as was I. He came to us as an abuse case, grossly underweight, fur falling out, afraid to eat. Seeing Sam grow to be healthy -- both physically and emotionally -- gives me great pleasure & reminds me of my ability to recover from abuse, just as Sam has.... Both boys have taught us to be more nurturing. They were an excellent training ground for the arrival of our [human] baby. In fact, Max introduced me to some of the behaviors I would later see in L----, our baby.

B--- seems to approve of the infantilizing effect that Boomer, a male Great Dane, has on her co-owners D----- and D----:

D----- was more playful and silly with Boomer than his usual self.... with Boomer he showed a more childlike, upbeat quality (not unlike when he interacts with kids -- he also loves playing with kids).... D---- is normally a more active, hyper, talkative and demonstrative person. With Boomer, he slowed down (as he would with a child), talked and played with him.

Others enjoy the experience, prompted by a pet, of an infectious playfulness that affects the whole family, as in the case of R---, B---, and their Siberian Husky/Alaskan Malamute bitch named Inoko:

Our dog brings out the best in us. She makes us laugh and play as individuals and as a family. She tries to please, and she tries our patience.

Cats, of course, can exert a similar effect on one's self and family. Such a communal influence is described by A---- in connection with her [human] baby and Max, a five-year-old tiger cat (though a second four-year-old tiger cat, Sam, is left out of this scenario):

Max has always been such a playful and active and enjoyed cat. He's also a real extrovert who loves people, including strangers. You'll often find Max at the center of a group, being silly and playful. I think Max rekindled or reminded us again of the value of play. Now that we have an infant daughter, Max has joined us in playing with her; especially any form of ball. I'm hoping to increase our 3-somes -- the baby, me and Max in group games of ball rolling and tossing. The baby, and I think Max, as well as I, enjoy our 3-some games, and I think it's great that we can all play together and have fun, each at our own level and activity.

In their own way -- though they might seem aloof on the surface -- cats can inspire comparable self-ennobling tendencies, as in the case of J-- and the eight-year-old "Butler" mentioned earlier:

I find at times that I am incredibly patient with my cat -- even indulgent. I do not know why I am except that it makes me feel good to know that I am very good to at least one of God's creatures.

On a related theme, two informants explicitly regard their dogs as sources of "unconditional love":

When one of us is having a bad day and we come home to Sam, things don't seem so bad. Just looking at that innocent puppy face and that unconditional love, makes us smile.... Sam is an extremely important addition to our family. I never thought (and either did all my friends and family) that I would ever take to a pet the way I have with Sam. I have so much love for him and I could not imagine not having him [informant, J-------, female; dog, Sam, male, eight months old, yellow Labrador Retriever].

Dougie ... looks at me as if I'm the most important person or thing in his life.... Dougie can provide total acceptance and is ALWAYS glad to see me. Human relationships, no matter how strong, don't provide that unconditional love and acceptance [informant, L--, female; dog, Dougie, male, five years old, Maltese].

As a reciprocal gesture, L-- provided several pictures of her canine friends. The extent to which she returns her dogs' affection appears in her generous provision of snapshots. The first shows Dougie, a five-year-old male Maltese; the second shows Davey, a four-year-old male Maltese; and the third shows a group shot of these two dogs plus Macho (a new puppy) asleep on their mistress, who reclines on a sofa.

Some might be surprised to discover the extent to which cats can also provide comparable levels of comfort, caring, and companionship. Describing her two domestic tabby cats, Devvy (a seven-year-old male) and Chessie (a three-year-old female), C---- uses the term "noncontingent affection" -- clearly, a close synonym for "unconditional love":

My cats provide me with noncontingent affection and entertainment. They make me smile at least once a day; what else can I say about that?

Thus, while recognizing that cats interact differently from dogs, L-- finds great solace in the presence of her one-and-a-half-year old female Toffey and her three-year-old male Tinsel:

Cats interact with people very differently than dogs. I have found however that my cats can be of great comfort at three a.m. in the morning when I can't sleep or am worried just by being in the same room or sleeping next to me or purring next to me in a way that dogs would not.

Two informants voice this theme in terms of "constant companionship." The first provides a detailed account of her cats' activities:

Max and Sam are 2 of my closest buddies. They're constant companions, there when I need them, they lick my tears away if I'm crying, ... alert me to any necessary cautions, help guests, workmen, etc., feel at home (unless my guests dislike cats) and remind me and teach me about the value of and need for love, nurturing, playfulness and companionship. They have their priorities straight and know what's really important in this world -- rest, play, companionship, etc. They remind me to let go of unnecessary concerns. Before we got L---- [their human baby], the boys were our children and we treated them accordingly [informant, A----, female; cat, Max, five years old; cat, Sam, four years old].

The second informant on "constant companionship" keeps her verbal description shorter but provides a winning snapshot from her personal collection:

Scruffy gives me constant companionship; is not judgmental of my actions and grows older along with me [informant, T-----, female; cat, Scruffy, mixed breed, eleven years old].

J--- describes how such human-feline intimacy can occur in a sudden moment of breaking through, as in the case of her female quasi-Siamese Amelia (whose picture shows that this formerly abused and consequently skittish animal has learned to trust not only people but also other cats as well):

One evening about a year after she had been with us, she jumped into my lap more purposefully than usual and marched right up till we were nearly nose to nose. She studied my face closely for several minutes as if looking for something, then lay down and went to sleep.... Thereafter she was literally "in my face" all the time and never showed any distrust of me -- or actually of anyone else -- ever again.

Clearly, cats can become members of what, in effect, amounts to nothing less than a surrogate family. Thus, prior to getting married, B---- regards her two female cats, Shelby (six years old) and especially Murphy (ten years old), as giving her "someone to care about":

Murphy gives me someone to care about. Although having a pet as opposed to having a human family is not the same, I nevertheless do have someone waiting for me at home who cares about me and needs me. Although cats are notorious about being aloof, this cat can play both sides of the card when absolutely needed. She, at times, is sweet, adorable and quite entertaining. I do hope to one day be married and have a family, but at this time, these cats are my immediate family and that means the world to me.

In this capacity, cats can even serve as partial replacements for a lost family member, as for F------ (80 years old), whose difficult adjustment to widowhood is softened by the attention of two eight-year-old female felines, Jessica and Miranda:

Living alone after being widowed is a difficult adjustment. With my two cats, I am never alone. I am greeted happily when I arrive home, and they show more consideration than I would have expected when they hop up on the bed in the morning. If I am not awake, they often do not disturb me, they sleep too until I stir. Then they tickle my face with their whiskers. I'm lucky to start each day with a welcome that makes me laugh.... Having a pet to hug is important to my happiness.... If a "no pets" rule were passed by my condo association, I would sell this place and find another place where I could keep them.

F------ supplied a nice stereo pair of herself holding Jessica. The cat sits in her lap and, as suggested in her vignette, F------ hugs her feline friend very tightly.

A particularly entertaining evocation of the companionship offered by her one-year-old male cat Figaro came from A---, who reported that Figaro keeps her company in all aspects of her daily life, including his penchant for helping her type on her computer keyboard. A--- also supplied a sample of Figaro's writing -- ":L>DSXGFFFYGVFCX nb mmmmmmmmmmm ...," etc. -- accompanied by stereo pairs captured in the appropriate setting:

I adore almost all animals, but cats are my favorites. Since I was a young child, I have always had a cat, or cats (almost 60 years).... These cats in turn have given me years of love and companionship.... Figaro still acts like a kitten, and is into everything. He hides my pens and pencils, still plays with the roll of paper towels, and comes running when he hears the dental floss dispenser. Whenever possible, he likes to type on my computer keyboard. So far, he has not written anything intelligible!

And R------ reports that, when dogs and cats are combined in the same setting, the sense of family can expand even farther:

Skittle, Grizz and Promise help to make my house a home. Since I live alone, I believe I need more than just myself. There have always been animals in my house. I talk to the animals and take the dog with me every place I can. Their presence makes my days more enjoyable [informant, R------, female; cat, Skittle-Shanks, male, eleven years old; cat, Grizzabells, male, nine years old; dog, Promise, female, three years old, Australian Shepherd Mix].

In a similar spirit, B---- produces the marvelous epithet "fur children" to describe her two female cats, ten-year-old Murphy and six-year-old Shelby:

I treat them like children -- my fur children. I worry about them when I travel. I miss them when I'm not with them.

Phase 2 suggested seven key themes that appear to characterize the opportunities enjoyed by those engaged in consumption experiences shared with animal companions. These themes were developed inductively rather than deductively -- that is, they emerged from the pictures and vignettes provided by informants rather than from a more a priori categorization scheme. Nonetheless, they appear to carry face validity and to provide a convenient conceptual basis for typifying the kinds of experiential benefits stemming from pet-related consumer behavior. Accordingly, Phases 3 and 4 of the present study were directed toward supporting and fleshing out the findings of Phase 2 in more detail and depth.

Forty-two members of the first author's MBA classes in Consumer Behavior (B8601) and Commercial Communication (B9601-38) conducted interviews and photo sessions in accord with the instructions reproduced in Appendix 3. Of these, four students reported on their own pet-related consumption experiences, whereas the other 38 followed our request to conduct the interview with someone else for purposes of getting a broad sampling of local pet ownership.

As before, our CSPE approach was designed to explore the responses of these informants to their animal companions in depth. Toward that end, the verbal vignettes collected by means of the questionnaire accompanying the instructions shown in Appendix 3 were again read, analyzed, and categorized for thematic content. Via this process, each of the seven themes previously uncovered in Phase 2 was bolstered, supported, and corroborated by material from the verbal vignettes written by our informants in Phase 3.

In addition, we once more provide visual illustrations in the form of stereo 3-D photos (where possible) or by means of single-view pictures (where the stereographic images did not turn out). Such cases of failed stereography were comparatively rare in Phase 3 (only three of 42 cases) -- presumably thanks to improvements in our manner of instructing informants in the use of the stereo cameras.

Findings from Phase 3: The Seven Major Themes Revisited

Careful analysis of our informants' responses in Phase 3 found strong consistency with the seven major themes regarding the various opportunities associated with animal companionship previously identified in Phase 2. Specifically, we again find key motifs suggesting that pets provide seven major types of opportunities for their owners.

(1) The Opportunity to Appreciate Nature and to Experience Wildlife

(2) The Opportunity for Inspiration and Learning

(3) The Opportunity to be Childlike and Playful

(4) The Opportunity to be Altruistic and Nurturant

(5) The Opportunity for Companionship, Caring, Comfort, and/or Calmness

(6) The Opportunity to Parent

(7) The Opportunity to Strengthen Bonds with Other Humans

Each of these seven themes -- as supported by material from our informants in Phase 3 -- is further discussed in what follows. (Here, we present point-and-click code names either (1) in the text itself where the stereographs are not as visually compelling as one might wish or (2) centered on the screen for those stereographs that we believe deserve more careful scrutiny.)

(1) The Opportunity to Appreciate Nature and to Experience Wildlife

Some informants continue to voice an almost intellectual satisfaction gained from the opportunity to encounter Nature face-to-face. Not surprisingly, this somewhat detached or inquisitive orientation tends to characterize the relatively few informants who focus on their ownership of tropical fish. Thus, one 29-year-old Mexican student derives "happiness" from his fish because "It's beautiful and reminds me of the ocean and the river of calmness and peace" (TKMM). Another fish-owning 34-year-old American teacher finds "special significance" in his aquarium because tropical fish are "unique" and "entirely of a different animal order" -- an underwater world that is more "interesting" than watching television (GKGS).

Turning to the canine community, while walking her dog in a scene that overlooks Manhattan from across the East River in Brooklyn Heights, a 26-year-old veterInarian experiences an almost scientific connection with "the weather of the city in a way that allows me to take inventory of what is important & most basic." In this, she emulates her dog Pogo, finding that dogs are "amazing creatures ... sensitive to their own carnal needs" and that they are blessed with intuitive gifts for interpreting "physical signals," "body language," or other "cues from their environment" (JMJM).

It is interesting to note that the photos taken by the three informants just mentioned all failed to capture any clear visual sense of the human-pet relationship involved (TKMM; GKGS; JMJM). It may be that the tendency to regard pets from the fish-bowl perspective of an aquarium owner or the test-tube angle of a trained scientist does not lend itself to capturing the animal-companion experience on film. Nonetheless, one informant oriented toward experiencing Nature -- a 25-year-old U.S. student -- did capture a strong visual sense of admiration for her dog as a reminder of God's creation: "My dog reminds me of the importance of going outside and enjoying the park"

One 34-year-old fish owner -- an American teacher -- manages to transcend his fascination with Nature in order to glimpse educational moments of insight, finding that "My fish and the aquatic world in which they reside ... serve to ground me in New York City, where one experiences so few living things" and that they "give me a feeling of relaxation and make me more contemplative" (GKGS).

Along similar lines, a 44-year-old American university professor finds deep meanings in regarding his faithful, loyal, uncritical dog as "a constant reminder of the passing of time in this short span on earth that we have called Life" (KYRS).

Also, some of the more meditative cat owners surface as introspective interpreters of their own feline-related learning experiences. For example, one 27-year-old U.S. graduate student finds her life "enriched" by sharing her journeys with a traveling companion named Percy, whom she has taken to "The Grand Canyon, Las Vegas, Tahoe, and Graceland, just to name a few":

Another American female student, 24 years of age, finds her cat Jasmine not only a "conversation piece" but also a source of instruction who "reminds me of how interconnected all life forms are, teaches me what responsibility for another being does and can mean, and makes me laugh":

For example, one 20-year-old American student has "fun" watching his pet snake Zero in her cage while she recovers from mites so that he can once again pick her up and handle her: "I used to play with her while I played the guitar or ate dinner, and she was great fun to have around" (OIRV).

Somewhat more conventionally, several of our dog and cat owners emphasize such childlike and playful activities as a primary benefit of pet ownership. For example, a 22-year-old American male student finds that the "greatest thing" about his dog Casey is her playful personality: "She loves to play and will chase down anything I throw for her. She licks my face when I'm trying to watch television"

Another dog owner -- a 27-year-old Thai housewife -- finds that Rover, her Labrador Retriever, is "always happy to play":

He likes jumping to others and playing especially with tennis balls. He often breaks the balls by chewing too strongly though.

Her stereograph pictures herself shaking hands with Rover and holding a ball (which other photos, not shown here because they have poor image quality, show him catching in the air):

More extreme involvement with a playful pooch appears in the vignette and stereographs of a 30-year-old American writer who resonates to her dog Grady's "frenzied wiggle" and to "the reckless abandon with which he chases a ball." Indeed, her stereo photos show her down on all fours with Grady, biting one end of a stick that he holds in his mouth at the other end:

Similar abandon characterizes the play encounter of a nine-year-old American girl with her dog. She likes "to dance with Roxy because she ... makes me happy":

Sometimes, I dance with her when I think she's unhappy. Then I'll go over to her and pick up her legs and start dancing. Mostly, we dance when there's no music around, but sometimes we dance to the Beatles. If it gets too loud, she'll bark to the music.... I think it makes her happy to dance with me because afterwards her tongue hangs out and she seems to smile.... Dogs don't have faces like people but I can tell when she's smiling. Her mouth drops a little bit and her cheeks spread out and then you know that she's smiling.... Lots of people have pets but Roxy is special to me. She's a very good dancer.

This young girl's father captured her and Roxy on film in an exquisite moment of terpsichorean abandon:

Cats are, if anything, even more playful than dogs. Thus, one 24-year-old American social worker has fallen "in love" with her new kitten, partly because of her playful behavior: "I love the way she climbs up my pant-leg when I get home from work the way she crawls under the covers to find me in the morning, and the way she runs laps in my apartment when she is excited."

Another young woman -- a 29-year-old American marketing consultant -- also expresses "love" for her little cat Mandy and would feel a "void" without her: "I like playing with her, but feel guilty when I don't." Her stereo photos show a lot of playful cuddling behavior with Mandy, as well as the under-the-covers phenomenon referred to by the previous informant (JPCT).

An American boy, age 12, regards his little kitten Chuckie as a "good friend":

When I am bored and can not find something to do, Chuckie is fun to play with. We go on adventures together, we go in my dad's big closet and find our way out in the dark. We also play hide and seek, except he always hides. Sometimes I want to hug him and squeeze him.... I love him because he is the cutest little kitty.

One of the stereographs shows Chuckie looking rather relaxed about getting all this attention:

Meanwhile, a 25-year-old USA student describes the "wonderful personality" of her female cat George in terms of the kitty's playfulness, as also reflected by one of her stereographs:

In this scene we are playing with George. She loves to play. She will play with almost anything -- a piece of paper, a hairball, her toy rat. She also loves to knock over things. One might think that this would be annoying, but we love George so much that we find it amusing; we see her penchant for knocking over things as a funny, quirky part of her personality. We often play with her, running around the house or taunting her with a toy. Playing with George provides a fun, relaxing diversion from school work. She has a number of toys: three play rats and a couple of balls. We are always tempted to buy more every time we go to the pet store, but our apartment is already full of toys.

The accompanying stereo photo presents an especially vivid image of a mistress and cat at play:

For example, the veterinarian whom we visited earlier (JMJM #1) also expresses a strong sense of "duty" and "responsibility" toward her dog Pogo. "Even with a very busy lifestyle," she says, "one thing is constant: Pogo and I will visit the promenade at least two times a day. It is my duty to her" (JMJM #2).

Similarly, another returnee (VSJK #1) enjoys the "responsibility" of "sacrificing things" for his dog Casey":

Pets are a big responsibility because their lives are in your hands. However, I finally got Casey, my nine month old Shepherd mix, and remembered how great it is to have a dog. She makes a mess, pees on the carpet and jumps up on people; but I still love her.... I like looking out for her and sacrificing things for her. Casey is the biggest pain in the butt that I gladly look forward to seeing when I come home.

An Irish doorman and building superintendent, age 34, defines dog ownership in terms of the "responsibility" that motivates such self-sacrifices as taking walks on cold winter evenings in December: "Being outside with your dog is the main part of dog ownership -- no matter how cold it gets." In this, "Responsibility comes from the need to take care of a 'person' that can't tell its owner what it wants and needs." Unfortunately, despite the darkness of the cold night, the photographer did not remember to turn on the camera's flash, leading to a rather under-exposed photo (SBJS).

Far better stereographs accompany the brief vignette by a 38-year-old male American philosophy professor, who loves his dog Simon because of the "pleasure" that he brings others and because of the feelings of nurturance that he encourages: "I also like the fact that we saved him from the horrible place he was."

Similar feelings of nurturance occupy a 30-year-old American fund raiser, who focuses on the "trouble" involved in dutifully caring for a dog and finds it recompensed by the feeling of reciprocated love:

I think most people, at least city people, agonize over the decision to get a dog. They're right to. After all, you can't just open the back door in your robe and send the furry beast out to do her thing. You have to suit up in every kind of weather and head to the park, leave parties early to get home to take the dog out, pay dog walkers what some people pay babysitters -- oh, and how could I forget -- pick up dog doo. So you estimate what sort of trouble having a dog will be, double it, compare that with your love of the beasts, and you get a dog anyway. And from that moment on, it's all about her tail thumping when you walk in the door at the end of the day.

This informant appears to show a deep rapport with her pet. Notice how her body language mirrors that of the dog as it literally jumps for joy:

Turning to cats, we find comparable feelings of gratifying altruism in the ability to provide nurturance. Thus, three informants whom we have already mentioned in other connections also stress the theme of altruism in their care of feline companions.

The first (JPCT #1) sees her kitten as "something to care for": "I guess I like caring for her so much because she gives so much love and affection in return."

The second (RSAS #1) feels affection for his kitten because "I also feel Chuckie needs me too": "I give him food and treats because he is not a good hunter."

The third (SCLJ #1) finds a sense of fulfillment in brushing, combing, washing, and cleaning her cat: "Even if I have almost no time for myself, I will take time to brush George."

Other informants continue this theme -- sometimes with a somewhat whimsical sense of irony. For example, one 28-year-old American student muses over how his "loaner cat" Moo Moo actually prefers his roommate but shows "happiness to see me coming through the door" because he knows he will be fed: "I certainly resent this but continue to feed, play and clean up after him accordingly" (JSJS). A 29-year-old art director sees herself as rescuing her cat Sweet Pea from "the evil streets of Baltimore" in order to "spoil" the cat rotten by feeding her "treats" and "chocolate milk" and by letting her sleep "in the middle of my bed" (BBCR). A 33-year-old lawyer sees her relationship with her cat Sam in terms of "two main aspects ... companionship and subservience." In connection with the latter, more altruistic side of the relationship, this informant's stereograph captures Sam's sense of superiority as he sits above her and peers down: "Sam is, in his mind, the ruler of the universe.... the mistress of the apartment must submit to his wishes, and in the photo, watches as he surveys his kingdom from on high" (RAJM).

Another rather whimsical account of the nurturing impulse comes from a 10-year old American girl who comforts her cat Boo-Boo, when away on long vacations, by calling and leaving messages for him on the answering machine. Notice how this child holds Boo-Boo closely and lets him put his potentially dangerous paw on her nose:

Finally, a rather touching vignette with pictures to match comes from a 28-year-old American graduate student who captured images of herself nurturing her cat Pickles the day before she died: "She was very sick, and I was holding her tightly trying to protect her, while at the same time show her how much I loved her.... She loved being in my arms."

Only one fish owner -- a 27-year-old American optometrist -- steps forward to identify his tropical pets as providing a feeling of "comfort" -- "a sense of stability and tranquility" (JLCS).

Among the more exotic pets appearing in our study, a chinchilla named Mika prompts strong feelings of affection in her nine-year-old owner, who summarizes her relationship with the small rodent quite succinctly: "I love her and she loves me."

So many dog owners emphasize the theme of companionship in such resoundingly similar ways that it would serve no useful purpose to describe each one individually. These canine-adoring informants use such words as "security," "comfort," "friend," "confidant," "affectionate," "sympathetic," "loving," "always happy to see me," "happiness," "joy," "entertainment," "the only one in the family who greets me with that kind of excitement," "makes me feel like a celebrity when I come home," "has an uncanny way of sensing my emotional needs," "a good listener and a devoted friend" -- and, above all else, companionship. In roughly ascending order of stereographic excellence, these vignettes and photos include the following: SBJS #2 (see also SBJS #1); RQKX; SBSX; DWDW

Cat owners stressing the theme of companionship are, if anything, even more effusive in the evocativeness of their language, using such words as "a bond," "we really communicated," "tremendous love" (this from a 28-year-old woman who had to have her cat put to sleep because he turned on her after she left him for over a month with a friend); "great company," "affectionate," "an important part of my life"; "keep each other company and try to be there for each other"; "a good friend"; "a good relationship," "a great companion"; "means so much to me," "takes care of me," "my best friend," "always sits and listens," "love my cat like I love a person," "a big part of my family"; "makes me feel loved, every day"; "a house full of love," "showering me with affection," "loving me no matter what"; "a constant in my life during tremendous changes," "always there for me," "a symbol of unconditional caring." Again, these responses are so numerous and so comparable in their sentiments that it seems most economical simply to list the relevant vignettes and photos in order of increasing stereographic excellence: COCO; LZLZ; RAJM #2 (see also RAJM #1); RSAS #3 (see also RSAS #1); RSAS #2)

Beyond mere feelings of companionship -- as in Phase 2 -- some respondents actually see their relationships with pets as comparable to those between parents and children. Reassuringly, no parental feelings surfaced among owners of tropical fish, but dog and cat lovers often adopted a maternal or paternal perspective toward their companion animals. In this respect, one of our dog-owning informants (SMSM #1) makes a return appearance, claiming to treat her dog Rover "as parents do their kids" or as "a kid to be with all the time":

Another dog owner -- a 58-year-old American high-school English teacher -- expresses similar feelings, suggesting that her dog has replaced her own grown children in the sense of occasionally needing a good lecture, to which he does not always pay careful attention. Her stereograph shows herself lecturing her pet, who -- as advertised -- appears to be ignoring her:

Two cat owners also made return visits in connection with the parenting theme. The first (COCO #1) compares caring for her cat Max with "the responsibilities of having a child." All the more tragic that she had to have Max put to sleep after he "turned" against her because she left him with a friend when she went abroad for over a month (COCO #2). The second (SCLJ #1; SCLJ #2) compares her and her fiance's cat George to their "first child":

She really is like a baby -- and we treat her that way. Sometimes when she doesn't clean herself properly, we use Huggies to wipe her. When I was a little girl, I got into my mom's make-up. Likewise, George got into my make-up a few weeks ago. I always imagined that when I had a child, I wouldn't want to deal with dirty diapers and all the messes. But with George, I don't mind having to clean up after her because I love her so much. I also worry about George as if she were my child. I worry about leaving her during the day. I worry when she gets sick. If she shows any signs of illness, I call the vet immediately to get advice.... In this scene, X---- is holding George. He always holds her that way -- like a baby.

As indicated by this vignette, the stereograph shows this informant's fiance cradling George in his arms:

Along similar lines, a 22-year-old Italian-American student reports treating her companion cat Duke "like I think of her as my baby." Her stereographs show the closeness of this maternal relationship:

Finally, the presence of animal companions may affect the way their owners interact with friends, relatives, loved ones, and other personal contacts. For example, a member of one couple whom we have already visited (DRMG #1) does not explicitly mention the role of their dog in building a feeling of togetherness, but the body language in photos of the two playing with Simon on the couch seem to show how such activities help to draw Simon's owners closer together:

Another dog owner whom we have already described (KECS #1) mentions many virtues of her dog Grady but concludes that "what I love most about my Grady is that he serves as a constant reminder that life is about connections:

One more returnee (SCLJ #1; SCLJ #2; SCLJ #3) describes how she and her fiance "relate to each other through George [the cat]" via cuddle sessions, sleeping together, and sharing pet-care chores -- which she views as favorable omens for a good child-oriented partnership:

Most vividly, one informant structures an entire vignette around the role played by a dog named Lucky in socializing a young French-Canadian boy after his move from France to Montreal:

"Lucky," the dog ... represents a new way to exchange affection, sweetness. It's part of the family and they feel guilty when they have to leave it alone.... A few months ago, they arrived to Montreal (Canada) from France. At the beginning, the integration in the country has been more difficult than expected.... it seems that Lucky's presence helps them to overcome this new life abroad. Indeed, X--------, the small boy, was very reserved at school, he didn't talk much, but since Lucky arrived in the family, his teacher told to Y-------- that he started participating in class.

The stereographs of this family show how Lucky helps to draw together both the parents and the children in this young family:

Conclusions from Phase 3

Phase 3 serves to corroborate the importance of the seven themes that emerged from Phase 2 and to enrich our understanding of their broad-scale applicability across a diverse set of informants. Further support, at a more intimate level of in-depth specificity, comes from Phase 4.

Note that -- as reflected by the "instructions" just quoted -- Ellen was asked to provide her pictures and vignettes before she had in any way seen the other materials collected in Phases 1, 2, and 3 of the study. Hence, we view her responses as corroboration for the earlier findings.

Findings from Phase 4: Ellen and the Seven Thematic Meanings of Animal Companionship

The full set of comments by Ellen appears in Appendix 4. These comments include both a general statement and a more detailed series of animal-specific accounts of relevance to the various stereographs. Taken together, these pictures and vignettes provide powerful confirmation of the potential role(s) played by animal companionship in the lives of consumers. Further and more specifically, they support the seven themes previously identified in Phases 2 and 3.

(1) The Opportunity to Appreciate Nature and to Experience Wildlife

Clearly, Ellen has a deep fascination with animals, studies their behavior, and feels intimately connected to the animal kingdom:

I simply love animals, in general. They're beautiful, fascinating, entertaining, and vulnerable. I have at least two bird feeders for the wild birds. In the warmer months I have at least two hummingbird feeders out. Last summer I was thrilled to see six hummingbirds hovering about one feeder; so many at one feeder is very rare.... I also keep a mineral block out for the deer. Almost all of my charitable donations go to animal-related causes. I watch animal-oriented programs on television, subscribe to animal-oriented magazines...and the list goes on. Animals, in one way or another, are so much a part of my life. But they're not "external" to me; rather, I feel some deep connection to animals in general. Maybe one way of explaining this relationship is that animals are largely the context of my life.... I love simply to watch my (or any) animals.

Geese. I'd never had geese before, hadn't even really been around them. I liked the novelty of adding geese to my menagerie.

Geese

Donkey. I've experienced the full range of emotions because of Ike. I had never had a donkey before, had never even been around one. Expecting a donkey to be like a horse, I was in for some big surprises. As I like to say, they don't call 'em asses for nothing!... I bought Ike mostly for the novelty.... He and I "argued" for months, or maybe it was years, about who was in charge. I think he's finally conceded that I am or, at least, that I'm empowered by virtue of controlling the supply of hay, feed, and treats. But still, he gets very assertive from time to time. Not letting me approach him, kicking at me, nipping at me, laying his long ears back and looking at me in a threatening manner, running wildly around the yard. But most of the time he's relatively compliant. He and the goats hang out together. I notice that he'll tease the goats, just as he sometimes seems to tease me. He's ornery. I hear that most donkeys are. But he's smart, smarter than a horse.

Donkey

Goats. I have two African pygmy goats. Their names are Magnolia Blossom ("Maggie") and Honeysuckle ("Honey"), which I thought sounded like good names for Georgia goats.... I bought them because I wanted pygmy or dwarf goats, mostly because of the novelty.

Geese. Silly One is a delight. She's very playful. She follows me, nips at loose clothing or shoestrings. She demands attention. She's quite vocal -- too noisy at times, squawking whenever people are present. She is gregarious and has a sense of humor. How do I know? Well, she will nip at my pant leg, and when I look at her she jumps back and laughs. I know that she nips at me to get a reaction. She'll continue to tease for just about as long as I'm willing to be her victim. I enjoy spending time with her, she always causes me to smile or laugh.... Mr. Goose is also very vocal but generally more cautious than Silly One. I can't really interact only with him, as he's always with Silly and she takes charge of all interactions with others!

Geese

Goats. Unbeknownst to me, African pygmy goats are perennially young, or at least they act that way. The head-butting, running, pronging, spinning in midair, running and jumping sideways. Plus the more typical goat behavior: climbing and jumping on anything accessible. On my car, for example. They ruined the paint on my car, and on my truck. They've scratched the windshields by jumping or running from hood to roof and back to hood. They've eaten all my shrubbery, one student's homework, and a set of advertising slicks that were to have been submitted along with the final manuscript to a journal. But I don't really care. I find it all rather amusing; they act so silly.... They're immensely entertaining. They can always make me laugh.

Geese. The donkey mortally wounded the female [goose]. I found her injured, with the gander standing beside her mournfully crying. Without moving her any more than necessary, I tried pouring hydrogen peroxide in her wounds, then I wrapped her in a towel and took her to a nearby emergency vet clinic. But nothing could be done. It was too late, she was fatally injured. I cried profusely. Tears still well up thinking about her. I felt so guilty because I hadn't somehow prevented her demise. I could have intervened had I paid closer attention to what the donkey was doing. Now if the geese and the donkey are allowed out of their pens at the same time, I closely supervise them..... The gander was so lonely. He wandered around crying, crying late into the night. I ached. I was so sad.... Through a classified ad I located two goslings more-or-less the same breed as the gander. I drove over four hours and spent $12 to get a mate for Mr. Goose. He immediately assumed parenting responsibilities for Silly One and Silly Too.... The goslings grew up. They were very happy. Then one day Silly Too was gone. There were no signs of murder, injury, or capture by predators. It was spring, and I think she went off to find a mate. I was so sad that she had disappeared, without a trace, without a word. But, I try, within limits, to let my animals find their own "homeostasis."

Geese

Donkey. He can be very cute. When my neighbor's two horses got through the fence and came over to visit, Ike was very excited. However, the (much larger) horses wanted nothing to do with such a silly looking creature so they royally snubbed him. His feelings were hurt. I could readily tell by the look on his face and the way he hung his head. He saw me and walked several hundred feet over to me for a hug. I know when he wants a hug because he stands next to me with his head down and neck next to my arm.... He often brays loudly when he sees me -- even through the kitchen window in the morning. When he's not in his pen but allowed to run free in the yard, he sometimes comes to the steps to the front door and yells (brays) at me, presumably for food or a treat ... or maybe a hug.

Donkey

Pony. I shopped around for a new horse a couple of years ago; I had a good idea of what I wanted, with fairly well-defined decision criteria.... Butt fit most of those criteria, but I really bought him because he was irresistibly cute, ignoring the fact that he was known to be intractable at times. He tends to be a bully -- I think because he's insecure. I'm pretty sure he was handled very roughly when he was young and he fears that he will be punished or hurt. Therefore, he's easily spooked, tends to move much too strongly, prefers fast to slow. He is getting better, however. A trainer and I have been working with him, when time permits, to build his confidence through more sensitive, more humane handling.

Pony

Horse. Delta is officially "out to pasture." She's fully retired, living out her life in a small herd, outdoors, in as free a state as possible for a domesticated animal. I, and others, insure her well-being.... She's old and dilapidated. Many years of vigorous, concussive jumping have taken their toll on her front legs, in particular. She is pigeon-toed and can no longer fully straighten her legs. Her knees are very knobby, like those of some very old people. She's actually rather pathetic looking! Yet her face and eyes are expressive and her overall attitude is good. She's happy and content. Therefore, I feel okay about her.... She does not live at home; rather, she's boarded at a stable, where she's been even since I bought her several years ago. I thought about bringing her home to take care of her in her old age, but she's happy where she is, in a large pasture with a small herd of horses. She wouldn't have a large pasture or a herd at home, only a donkey companion. Also, there are people who live and work at the stable, and they can keep an eye on her. It's as though she's in a type of assisted living facility. I check on her regularly, feeding her supplementary "senior" equine food, grooming her, giving her treats (carrots, apples, even commercially prepared horse treats). I keep watch to make sure that her needs are being met, that she's comfortable and happy. During the winter or any other time she requires extra care, I hire someone to attend to her, if I can't. I guess it's very much like taking care of an elderly parent.... I have an obligation to take care of her. That's the implicit agreement one makes when acquiring an animal. Besides, she was fun, and we spent a lot of good times together. She's earned her retirement.... I dread the day someone will find her dead or that I'll have to make the tough decision to have her put down because she's no longer able to enjoy life (we'll be able to tell by her body language, especially her eyes).

Interestingly, Ellen does not mention "unconditional love" as an attribute that attracts her to animals. Rather, having grown up on a midwestern farm, Ellen retains a bit of the practical orientation toward the animal kingdom as a lifeworld "context" that must be respected and honored. She displays great fondness for her animal friends, but -- in the back of her mind -- seems aware that animals often also serve such utilitarian functions as transportation. Or food:

I do think humans have a (huge) responsibility towards -- i.e., caring about, preserving, and protecting -- animals, especially animals in the wild, because without the power of "higher-order" thinking, they are at such a disadvantage that for so many their very existence is threatened. Having said that, I confess to eating meat. I can't easily reconcile my convictions and my behavior!

DISCUSSION

Methodologically, the present study has demonstrated the usefulness of the Collective Stereographic Photo Essay as an approach to studying relevant types of consumption experiences in depth. The combination of self-reflective verbal vignettes and representative self-photographs offers vivid insights into the meanings associated with consumer behavior -- whether that behavior involves the purchase of frozen foods, the selection of a dry-cleaning service, the driving of a car, or the enjoyment of an animal companion. Further, our visual images help to bolster the case for enhanced clarity, realism, and depth provided by three-dimensional stereography. Pictures presented as stereo 3-D displays appear to advance the contribution made by photography to qualitative research.

Implications Concerning Key Substantive Theme(s)

Substantively, our findings address seven key themes reflecting the opportunities that pets bring to the human consumers who choose to share their lives with animal companions. In the preceding sections, we have described each of these seven thematic opportunities in some detail: (1) The Opportunity to Appreciate Nature and to Experience Wildlife; (2) The Opportunity for Inspiration and Learning; (3) The Opportunity to be Childlike and Playful; (4) The Opportunity to be Altruistic and Nurturant; (5) The Opportunity for Companionship, Caring, Comfort, and/or Calmness; (6) The Opportunity to Parent; and (7) The Opportunity to Strengthen Bonds with Other Humans.

It appears reasonable to conclude tentatively that -- beyond constituting the essence of pet-related consumption experiences -- these themes may help to explain the health-conferring aspects of animal companionship, whereby people who share their lives with pets tend to gain the medical, psychological, and/or psychotherapeutic benefits discussed earlier. Pet-related consumption may increase one's self-esteem (Themes 1 and 2); may relieve stress (Theme 3); may contribute a sense of accomplishment or competence (Themes 4 and 6); may enhance feelings of safety or security (Theme 5); and/or may help to forge stronger relations with friends and family (Theme 7). All these opportunities may plausibly contribute to physical or mental well-being, in ways that clearly deserve further exploration in future research.

In this connection, we might note one pervasive and life-affirming motif that cuts across the various themes identified earlier -- namely, unconditional love.

Specifically, in Phase 1, one 28-year-old student (AR~28F) sees her dog Molly as a source of "unconditional love" -- "I love my dog because she always loves me." Another student in her late twenties (JB27F) insists that her cat Jack "loves me unconditionally -- I'm his 'mommy.'"

In Phase 2, eight of our informants -- speaking in various contexts -- explicitly emphasize the "unconditional love" that a pet brings to their lives. Thus, recalling our examples in the order presented previously, Dougie (Dougie, Davey, and Group Shot) goes beyond human relationships in providing "unconditional love and acceptance." C----'s two cats, Devvy and Chessie, give her "noncontingent affection." Sam makes her owners smile from "just looking at that innocent puppy face and that unconditional love." By way of relaxing, S------ finds Katie's "unconditional love ... amazing and very welcomed after a hard day at work!" Another informant regards a pet's "unconditional love" as comparable to that offered by an "ideal child." The owner of Lex (Lex) makes a similar comparison, suggesting that this animal is "like my child": "We provide each other with unconditional love and would be truly lost without each other." And, as in the case of Butch, such an effect can be beneficially infectious: "He is a constant source of unconditional love, not only for what he brings into our lives, but also for the way he allows us to bring our emotions to each other."

Similarly, in Phase 3, one 30-year-old writer (KECS #1; KECS #2) treasures her dog Grady "for the unconditional love he gives." A 38-year-old building superintendent (MMLZ) recites a long list of virtues found in her canine companion before concluding that "She does not judge and she gives me unconditional love." A 28-year-old female student (KMAR) shapes her whole vignette around the theme of "Unconditional love" experienced with her cat Boo. A 51-year-old office scheduler (TMSS) thinks about what her cat means to her and summarizes her regard for Suke as the feeling that "She is always there for me -- meeting me when I come home ... a symbol of unconditional caring asking little in return except food, water, and petting." And a 58-year-old English teacher (LKBK) responds: "Reggie, my pet dog, is both the giver and recipient of uncritical and unquestioned love. No matter what happens the love is constant."

Insights from Subjective Personal Introspection (SPI)

Any force that can contribute such widely experienced unconditional love must be viewed as a powerful source of goodness and peace in the world. The authors speak with considerable feeling on this topic because we, too, have been visited by such blessings.

Thus, we have already documented the responses of Ellen-as-informant in Phase 4 of this study.

In addition, the second author has lived for many years with three cats -- Meepers, Sheroo, and Heera. In a poem dated July 10, 1996 -- self-described as "the first happy poem I've ever written" -- she expresses her feelings for the latter as follows:

With your soft, urgent chatter
when you spot a bird,
The quick tattoo of your paws on the hardwood floor
as you rush off on some mysterious errand,
The damp, downy feel of your nose on my palm
when you snatch away the food,
Your unflagging fascination
with things invisible to me,
With each fuzzy press of your head against my lips,
you renew your ownership of me.

Mute by comparison in their speechless fondness for their young Maine Coon cat, Rocky Raccoon, the first and fourth authors must content themselves with ceaseless attempts to capture his magic on film, as in this stereo 3-D photo of Rocky in the tube where he would gladly play with us for twenty-four hours a day if only we had the time:

Insights for Marketing and Consumer Research

Throughout the present essay, we have stressed the attempt to focus on pet-related consumer behavior from the viewpoint of consumpton experiences shared with companion animals. This focus borrows from a two-decades-old literature on the importance of fantasies, feelings, and fun in the lives of human consumers (e.g., Holbrook and Hirschman 1982; for reviews, see Holbrook 1995; Richins 1997).

Particularly important to this experiential view has been an emphasis on the role of enduring or deep involvement -- as opposed to mere situational or purchase involvement in the form of (say) perceived risk -- in the lives of consumers as they relate with particularly high levels of cathexis to certain product categories or consumption experiences (e.g., Bloch and Richins 1983; Laurent and Kapferer 1985; Richins and Bloch 1986). Some consumers form subcultures around shared commitments to their Harley-Davidson motorcycles (Schouten and McAlexander 1995) or bond appreciatively with the Chicago Cubs (Holt 1995). Others attain elevated flow, peak, or otherwise extraordinary experiences from skydiving (Celsi, Rose, and Leigh 1993, river rafting (Arnould and Price 1993), or surfing the Web (Hoffman and Novak 1996). Our informants -- as made abundantly clear by the vignettes and stereographs collected in the present study -- often show profoundly deep levels of involvement with their animal companions, leading them to speak in such terms as "unconditional love." As anticipated in the work on "enduring importance" (Bloch and Richins 1983), this deep involvement prompts pet owners to devote time to activities associated with "nurturance" (e.g., altruistic behavior) and "recreational usage" (e.g., playfulness) (p. 77).

We believe that such elevated levels of pet-related deep involvement cut against the grain of the view that focuses on possessions as extensions of the self (e.g., Belk 1988, 2000). This view treats the materialistic ownership of meaningful objects as a key to the formation of personal identity and as a basis for communicating that identity both to oneself and to others. In brief -- according to the focus on "Possessions and the Extended Self" -- "That we are what we have ... is perhaps the most basic and powerful fact of consumer behavior": "possessions are an important component of sense of self" (Belk 1988, p. 139). Colloquially, a consumer might possess a Rolex watch, a BMW sports coupe, and an Armani suit that would combine to create a self-image serving to impress his friends and neighbors. Just as clearly, a consumer could "own" a fancy pedigreed Poodle for the purposes of building an ego-enhancing self-concept and of sharing this narcissistic self-image with others. In these senses, "Pets ... are regarded commonly as representative of self and studies show that we attempt to infer characteristics of people from their pets" (Belk 1988, p. 155).

We cannot deny that, legally, we "possess" the pets that we "own." If we wish, we can buy them, sell them, breed them, have them neutered, have them declawed, and/or put them to sleep. Except for moral compunctions or fear of adverse publicity from animal-rights activists, we could even torture them or eat them. In this sense, technically, they serve as our "possessions." Indeed, the term "pet" itself -- by contrast with the more politically correct "animal companion" -- tends to imply a possessions- as opposed to a relationship- or experience-oriented view of the human-animal nexus: "At some point over the past twenty years the term companion animal was coined and is rapidly becoming the politically correct term, while 'pet' carries negative connotations of plaything, and entertainment value" (Franklin 1999, p. 49).

But the view of pets or animal companions as possessions ultimately leads to an impoverished account of the human-animal connection. Thus -- though the possessions-as-self viewpoint notes that pets may be regarded as family members, that we mourn their death, and that eating them is taboo -- this perspective nonetheless tends to consign animal companions to the role of a utilitarian function in a self-enhancing or identity-building means-ends relationship: "pets are so instrumental to self-identity that they are often useful as transition objects" (Belk 1988, p. 155, italics added).

By contrast with this pets-as-possessions-as-self position, the dynamics of animal companionship -- as revealed in the responses of our informants -- appear to go far beyond the confines of anything that we might normally associate with material possessions. Indeed, they tend to preclude the notion of ownership or of treating pets as merely means to our own ends. As abundantly illustrated in our data -- culminating in the idea of "unconditional love" mentioned earlier -- consumers bond with their animal companions in ways that resemble human relationships. Some go so far as to prefer animal companionship to that of humans. Others form relationships with their pets that begin to transcend or blur the boundaries of the human-animal distinction. Still others have a more conscious awareness that their treasured friend is "only" a dog, a cat, or a fish. Nonetheless, what these consumers share in common is a deep awareness that their relationship with one or more animal companions is an end in itself and definitely not merely a means to some other end such as the admiration of others, an excuse to get exercise, or a creature to protect the house against intruders. Nobody spoke in these terms. Only from the perspective of questions concerning the concept of possessions-as-extensions-of-self do we suddenly realize how conspicuous such views are in our data by virtue of their almost total absence. Along similar lines, notice that recent studies of attachment to material possessions (Kleine, Kleine, and Allen 1995) and the meanings of irreplaceable possessions (Grayson and Shulman 2000) have not listed pets as among those objects emerging in response to possession-elicitation questions.

We conclude -- vis-a-vis the relevant literature on marketing and consumer research -- that pets represent not self-extending possessions but rather a series of opportunities (currently framed in terms of seven main themes) for deeply involved consumption experiences in the company of highly valued animal companions. Without excessive sentimentality, we can infer that pets are part of consumption experiences for many people but that these experiences are above the domain normally explored by marketing and consumer research. In that sense, pets occupy hallowed ground. They belong to the sphere of sacred consumption (cf. Belk, Wallendorf, and Sherry 1989) in the sense that "the sacred is set apart and beyond mundane utility" (p. 9) so that, for example, "Pets are a type of sacralized animal" (p. 12). Indeed, proponents of the distinction between sacred and profane consumption explicitly regard deep involvement (with pets or whatever) as "the closest existing analog in consumer research to our concept of the sacred" (p. 13). In this, sacralization involves "the processes used by consumers to remove an object or experience from a principally economic orbit and insert it into a personal pantheon, so that the object or experience becomes so highly infused with significance ... that it becomes a transcendental vehicle" (p. 32). Herein, aspects of pets-as-sacred rather than of pets-as-possessions appear to tap the gist of the themes uncovered in the present study.

The Cross-Cultural Perspective

As anticipated throughout the present essay, the conclusions just suggested apply primarily to American informants and to a few others who reside in the United States. In the USA, we consumers cheerfully spend enormous financial resources and vast levels of effort in the care, feeding, grooming, and nursing of our pets. Similar pet-oriented expenditures might occur in the case of a Poodle on the beach at Cannes or a Great Dane on the couch of a parlor in Copenhagen. However, one must wonder how the American or Western standard compares to that found in other cultures and whether, perhaps, cross-cultural differences might carry implications for the global ethics of pet-related consumption experiences.

For example, can we find economically inefficient aspects of pet consumption wherein resource allocation seems to have gone astray, as in spending thousands of dollars to prolong the life of a sick animal suffering from an incurable disease? Might we object to such misallocations on moral grounds, as when resources devoted to pet care might better be spent on medical research to reduce the toll of human suffering? Or is there something just plain decadent about buying a diamond collar for a Chihauhau?

And how, we might wonder, do other cultures resolve these and other issues concerning pet-related consumption experiences? In this connection, our strong hunch is that -- at superficial but perhaps not deep levels -- other cultures differ considerably from the American or Western standard. For example, our impression is that the Japanese refrain from many of the excesses of pet consumption found in the USA. Partly, the Japanese home may typically contain less physical space to devote to the housing of animal companions. Also, the inveterate cleanliness of Japanese consumers may mitigate against letting Fido eat at the dinner table or allowing Fluffy to sleep in the bed. Such questions are currently under investigation in an extension of the present study pursued by the first author and a Japanese colleague. The empirical answers must await the completion of this future research. However, we anticipate that we shall find -- below the level of surface cultural differences -- a common core of humanity that connects consumers from other societies with deeply involving experiences enjoyed in the company of animal companions.

Morris B. Holbrook is the Dillard Professor of Marketing, Graduate School of Business, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027 (212-873-7324; mbh3@columbia.edu). Debra Lynn Stephens is a Visiting Associate Professor of Marketing, School of Business Administration, University of Portland, Portland, OR 97203 (503-283-7275; dlsinsight@aol.com). Ellen Day is Professor of Marketing, Terry College of Business, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602 (706-542-3769; eday@terry.uga.edu). Sarah M. Holbrook is a psychotherapist in private practice, 140 Riverside Drive, New York, NY 10024 (212-799-2389). Gregor Strazar is a graduate student in General Management, School of Business, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 (gstrazar@umich.edu). The authors thank the informants for sharing their experiences. They also thank Carol, Wendy, Barbara, and Allison for their help recruiting informants. Finally, they gratefully acknowledge the support of the Columbia Business School's Faculty Research Fund.

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Comments are welcome:

Thanks, Morris, Debra, Ellen, Sally, and Gregor